Khraitoun valley is located approximately 2 kilometers south of Tel Al-Faridis. The valley stretches about 4 kilometers from west to east, meeting with the Umm Al-Naqous Valley, which extends towards the Dead Sea.

The valley holds exceptional significance as it represents a prehistoric civilization dating back over half a million years. Archaeological excavations conducted between 1928 and 1962 in the caves scattered along the valley's banks revealed traces of human activity from various historical periods. On the northern bank, a group of caves is spread, including notable ones such as 'Arq Al-Ahmar, Umm Qal'a, Umm Qatfa, 'Ain Sakhri, Umm Naqous, and Al-Khayam.

After walking 1.5 kilometers into the valley, there is a large cave on the slope known as 'Arq Al-Ahmar. This natural cave, revealed through excavations, shows human settlement from the Lower Paleolithic to the late Natufian period. The oldest settlement layer contains tools made of flint stone, including hand knives and scrapers.

One kilometer from 'Arq Al-Ahmar, the cave of Umm Qal'a is located, containing remains dating back to the Chalcolithic period. One kilometer east of Umm Qal'a is the cave of Umm Qatfa, where the oldest evidence of prehistoric civilization in Khraitoun Valley appeared. Discovered tools in this cave include hand axes, and it is where the first evidence of fire in the Middle East was found.

On the southern bank of the valley lies the Khraitoun Cave, a natural cave extending more than 300 meters into the mountain, with multiple entrances and tunnels. Additionally, the Monastery of Saint Khraitoun is located there.

The Shuqba Cave is located on the northern bank of the Wadi Natuf, east of the village of Shuqba, northwest of Jerusalem, about twenty kilometers northwest of Ramallah. The Shuqba Cave is considered the model site for the Natufian civilization known globally. This civilization emerged based on hunting and gathering economies, preceding the agricultural phase that relied on the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals in settled life. The cave, a result of karst activity, was discovered by the world-renowned caver Mallon in 1924. British archaeologist Dorothy Garrod conducted excavations that revealed evidence of an unknown civilization dating back to the Late Stone Age, the Natufian civilization, which preceded the agricultural era and was named after the valley.

The Shuqba Cave is one of the largest caves in Palestine, opening into a main chamber (with a diameter of eighteen meters) containing two smoke vents in its ceiling and three side chambers. The excavations revealed the stratigraphy of the site, showing two prehistoric epochs, the Upper Luvualo-Mousterian period, and the Upper Natufian period, with evidence of use extending from the Early Bronze Age to the present day. The stone remains from the Upper Luvualo-Mousterian layer include flint tools such as weapons, serrated blades, circular tools, hand axes, drills, and a large quantity of scrapers. Blades made of flint were also found, used for harvesting wild grains and straw. The Natufian remains indicate a production method based on intensive hunting and gathering of wild grains through cooperative groups in the pre-agricultural period. A recent Palestinian-American mission has been reassessing the site in recent years

Tell es-Sultan, also known as the ancient city of Jericho, is located in the Jordan Valley and is considered the oldest city in the world, situated at the lowest point on Earth's surface. The city was founded around the spring of Ein es-Sultan, in an area with fertile soil, attracting groups of hunters during the Natufian period. This led to their settlement and the establishment of the first agricultural community in the Late Stone Age. Jericho was known by various names such as Yeriho, the City of the Moon, and the City of Palms. The name Roha appeared on an Egyptian seal in Jericho from the 12th century BCE.

Tell es-Sultan has witnessed four scientific excavation campaigns over the past two centuries. The Austrian-German expedition (1903-1909) led by Sellin conducted excavations, followed by the excavations carried out between 1930-1936 under the supervision of Garstang. The British School of Archaeology conducted excavations between 1952 and 1958 under the supervision of Kathleen Kenyon. Subsequently, joint Palestinian-Italian excavations (1997-2015) were carried out under the supervision of Hamdan Taha, Lorenzo Nigro, and Nicolò Marchetti.

The oldest archaeological remains date back to the Natufian period between the 10th and 8th millennia BCE, represented by hunting camps around Ein es-Sultan. In the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period, by the beginning of the 6th millennium BCE, Jericho was established as a fortified agricultural village surrounded by a stone wall supported by a massive round tower. The inhabitants of the Late Stone Age developed a highly organized society where humans engaged in building houses and crafts such as weaving, pottery, basketry, along with mythical and social beliefs related to burial ceremonies. These burial traditions involved skulls covered in plaster, associated with the early agricultural community.

Houses in the Late Stone Age were built with dried mud bricks, and the initially round construction evolved into a rectangular shape in the Pottery Neolithic period. During the Early Bronze Age (around 2000 BCE), Tell es-Sultan transformed into an urban center, flourishing as a Canaanite city-state. The city walls were constructed from mud bricks during the second phase of the Early Bronze Age. This urban life lasted for over a millennium before being abandoned and occupied by mobile groups in the Late Bronze Age IV. After a few centuries of urban hiatus, urban life resumed with the onset of the Middle Bronze Age. The city was surrounded by a robust defensive system consisting of ramparts and sloping walls topped with mudbrick walls, which continued until the end of the Middle Bronze Age, when it was destroyed by fire.

Excavations at Tell es-Sultan's western tombs revealed artifacts from the daily life of Jericho's inhabitants during the Bronze Age, including pottery, household furniture, and personal belongings. Evidence of simple settlement during the Late Bronze Age, Iron Age, and the 6th century BCE was found, and by the time of the Hellenistic and Roman periods, settlement shifted to the sites of Tell Abu al-Alaiq and the current city of Jericho. Extensive rehabilitation and development work has been carried out at Tell es-Sultan as an archaeological park, and in 2023, the site was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
 

The cave is located in Wadi Qana, south of the village of Kafr Laqif, in the mountainous region between Salfit and Qalqilya. It is a natural cave with passages and chambers. The site was surveyed in 1982, and excavations were conducted in 1986 by the occupation authority. Access to the cave is through a small opening leading to a narrow passage that leads to large irregular spaces.

The cave is a natural cave where archaeological evidence from different civilizations was discovered. Three main stages in the history of the cave can be distinguished, including the Yarmouk civilization from the late sixth to early fifth millennium BCE, the Chalcolithic period, and the Early Bronze Age I, along with limited evidence of use during the Hellenistic period in the entrance area only.

Evidence of the Yarmouk civilization from the late Neolithic period, dating to the end of the sixth and the beginning of the fifth millennium BCE, consists of distinctive decorated pottery, including jars, bowls, cooking pots, and spinning bowls, along with stone tools and grinding implements. The evidence indicates the agricultural nature of the group that inhabited the cave.

As for the main second stage, it dates back to the Chalcolithic period, which was the main period of use of the cave as a burial area. Ten tombs were found, containing human bones, with some used for secondary burial. Funeral attachments include pottery, basalt, and ivory vessels, beads, and metal tools made of copper. Among the notable discoveries in this cave is the finding of copper and eight gold rings and electro. This is considered the oldest evidence of gold use in the fertile crescent region.

A hand-made stone axe, made from flintstone material, is a primary tool from the Stone Age. It is approximately the size of a handgrip and has a triangular shape. It was discovered during an archaeological survey in Umm Qotfah Cave in the Wadi Khreitoun, about 10 km southeast of Bethlehem. This tool was used for various purposes, such as breaking bones and cutting and trimming branches. Its history dates back to the ancient Middle Stone Age, which marked the first evidence of using fire within the cave living environments in the Middle East.

It is a skull covered with a layer of gypsum in the form of a human skull, showing facial details like the mouth, nose, and eyes, with shells placed in the eye sockets. The origin of this phenomenon dates back to the late Neolithic period (8500-6000 BC), which witnessed the agricultural revolution, plant and animal domestication, and the beginning of human settlement in stable agricultural villages. It is believed that the phenomenon of sculpted skulls, discovered at the site of Tel as-Sultan in Jericho and buried under house floors, is part of the rituals of early agricultural communities and may be related to ancestor worship.

A bone awl, carved from animal bones, found at the Tell al-Mafjar site in Jericho. It has a hole near the top, possibly for suspension using a cord made from animal hide in the form of thread. This tool was used for perforating leather, which humans used in their daily lives and clothing or for making leatherware.

A spindle whorl made of stone, found at the Tell al-Mafjar site in Jericho. It was placed on top of a hand spindle, which turns wool into yarn suitable for weaving. It was discovered during the joint Palestinian-Norwegian excavations, 2000-2002. In the Stone-Copper Age, humans used it to weave clothes or spin animal wool. Spindle whorls were made from clay or wood during this period. People in this era lived in stable settlements, and their economy was based on hunting, herding, and agriculture.

A colored pottery shard found at the Tell al-Mafjar site in Jericho, featuring a drawing of a gazelle. Gazelles were animals that lived in the environment of early humans, and humans hunted them to provide a part of their food. This pottery shard represents a simple form of art recorded by early humans on pottery vessels from the 4th millennium BC. Colors from plant roots were used to paint and decorate the pottery.

The process of grain milling began in the late Natufian (Neolithic) period around ten thousand years ago. With the intensified gathering of wild grains, grain milling became a necessity in the daily life of agricultural societies during the modern Stone Age when humans started practicing agriculture, producing grains, and using them in food. Throughout much of human history, the milling process was manually performed using simple grinding tools, typically carried out by women.

Initially, mortars and stone pestles appeared, representing the simplest forms of mills. These were essentially concave basalt stones where grains were crushed by a smaller hand-held stone moved back and forth. These stone mills continued into the Chalcolithic period and the Bronze and Iron Ages, appearing in significant quantities in archaeological contexts in Palestine and neighboring regions.

In the 5th century BCE, a new grain milling technology emerged, consisting of two stone pieces—one stationary and the other upper with an opening for grains to filter through. It was manually operated, resembling traditional millstones but proving more efficient in the milling process compared to the older method.

The most significant advancement in grain milling came with the invention of Roman mills, which consisted of a large conical stone rotating beneath a massive millstone. These mills were powered mechanically, often driven by animals such as donkeys. This innovation allowed for the mass production of flour and bread for the first time. The mechanical power for mill rotation was harnessed using human and animal power, water, and wind energy to turn the mills. These mills persisted until the 19th century when steam power was employed to operate them.

As for traditional millstones, also known as the "tahouna" or "jaarousha," these small mills were used for domestic consumption. They consisted of two circular basalt stones, with an opening in the center for placing the grains. The milling process involved rotating the upper stone manually with a wooden handle attached to its top. Almost every rural household in Palestine had such a mill, serving their domestic needs.

Recent aspects of the millstone industry have been observed in the village of Fakouaa in the Jenin region, where traditional millstones are still being crafted.

Gaza City is located in the southern part of the Palestinian coastal plain, rising about 55 meters above sea level and approximately 3 km away from it. It enjoys a strategic location as the southern gateway to Palestine on the ancient coastal road "Via Maris" and has a seaport on the Mediterranean Sea. Gaza is known for its location at Tel al-Khuruba. Flanders referred to ancient Gaza as Tel al-Ajul, a site excavated between 1931-1935, with results published in five volumes. The main period of settlement dates back to the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Excavations in Tel al-Sakan, close to Tel al-Ajul, revealed archaeological evidence from the Early Bronze Age and a major settlement period in the Early Bronze Age III, preceding the settlement in Tel al-Ajul.

Gaza was mentioned in historical sources in the fifteenth century BCE as "Gazatu" in the list of cities opened by the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III. It was described as a Canaanite city and mentioned in documents from the fourteenth-century BCE at Tell el-Amarna and Tell el-Hesi as an Egyptian administrative center. Gaza is also cited in Torah sources as one of the five Philistine cities and represented the final southern border of Philistine control in the early twelfth century BCE. Sources indicate that the temple of the Philistine god Dagon was in Gaza.

Gaza came under Assyrian control during the campaign of King Tiglath-Pileser III in 723 BCE but remained a Palestinian city. Pharaoh Necho briefly occupied Gaza in 609 BCE. Gaza then became a strong fortress during the Persian period, and Herod renamed it Gadara. Historical sources suggest that Gaza was the only city to resist Alexander the Great during his campaign in Palestine. The city endured a long siege, and its ruler, Batis, did not surrender, leading to its forceful occupation. Batis narrowly escaped assassination at the hands of an Arabian dagger near its gates.

During the Hellenistic period, Gaza was the northernmost Phoenician station until its capture by Antiochus III in 198 BCE. It was subsequently destroyed by the Hasmoneans. The city was rebuilt at the beginning of the Roman period, and apart from a brief period of Herodian rule, it was directly governed by the Roman consul in Syria. Gaza flourished in the Roman period, and large temples were erected for the gods Zeus, Helios, Aphrodite, Apollo, and the city's protective god, Marna. The worship of Marna continued until the fifth century CE, after the victory of Christianity.

Since the fifth century, Gaza became an important center in the Christian Byzantine world, producing intellectual figures such as Procopius of Gaza and Saint Hilarion, who was born in nearby Tiberias. Archaeological excavations revealed Hilarion's monastery in Tel Amor near Nuseirat. The city of Gaza appeared on the Madaba Map as a large city with paved streets and a church at its center. Many churches were built during the Byzantine period. New Gaza developed around the port area. Gaza had its own calendar, starting around 60 BCE, in addition to the Seleucid calendar, which considered the Battle of Gaza in 312 BCE as the beginning of its later-called "Seleucid Era." Emperor Hadrian, who established a calendar starting in 129 CE, also adopted the city's calendar.

Gaza had connections with the Arabian Peninsula through the incense route since the seventh century BCE. Ancient writings revealed trade relations connecting Gaza to Yemen in the third century BCE. The city transported exports from the Arabian Peninsula to the port of Gaza and then to the Mediterranean countries.

Gaza fell under Islamic Arab rule in 635 CE and became an administrative center for the southern Negev region, as known from the Nessana papyrus. The city thrived in the New Testament era. Hashem, the grandfather of the Prophet Muhammad, was buried in Gaza, hence its name "Gaza Hashem." The great Imam Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i was born in 767 CE in a house west of Hamam al-Samara, where his daughter Asia and his servant Shaykh Atiya were buried.

The city was conquered by the Franks in 1149 under King Baldwin I, who called it "Ghazzah." Later, it became a stronghold for the Knights Templar until its liberation by Salah al-Din Ayyubi. In the Mamluk period, Gaza became the center of a district covering the southern coastal region, the capital of the southern Sanjaq, an important trade center, and a major station on the caravan route from Egypt to Palestine. Gaza was a fortified city with walls until the eighteenth century, featuring seven gates named after cities they led to: Bab al-Ablaqiyya, Bab Mimas, Bab al-Bahr, Bab Asqalan, Bab al-Khalil, Bab al-Muntar, and Bab al-Darum. After the Nakba in 1948, Gaza became a regional center for the new Gaza Strip, administered by Egypt until the occupation of Gaza in 1967. This situation continued until the establishment of the Palestinian Authority in 1994. The Gaza Strip includes cities such as Gaza, Beit Hanoun, Deir al-Balah, Khan Yunis, and Rafah, along with numerous villages. The Gaza Strip encompasses a large number of archaeological sites, landmarks, and buildings dating back to various periods.

Tell Balata is situated at the eastern entrance, south of modern-day Nablus, between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim. Known as "Shechem of old," Tell Balata represents the earliest settlement in the Nablus region. Shechem was mentioned in Egyptian curse texts and on the inscriptions of Khasekhemwy dating back to the 19th century BCE. It was also referred to in the Tell el-Amarna letters in the 14th century BCE as a major Canaanite center ruled by the king Labayu. Later, it transformed into a Samaritan city mentioned in historical, Jewish, Samaritan, Byzantine, and Islamic records.

Several excavations have taken place in the last two centuries, conducted by the German expedition from 1913 to 1934, the joint American expedition in 1965 and between 1968-1969, and the Palestinian-Dutch joint excavation between 2010-2014, supervised by Dr. Hamdan Taha and Dr. Kheirat van der Kooij, in collaboration with UNESCO. These excavations revealed the settlement history of the site, exposing artifacts from the Stone-Copper, Bronze, Iron, Hellenistic, and Roman Ages.

Shechem was established in the 4th millennium BCE as a small settlement and developed into an urban center during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Excavations unveiled extensive parts of the city plan from the Bronze Age, especially the massive city walls, the northwest and east gates, remnants of a palace from the Middle Bronze Age II, and a temple from the Late Bronze Age.

In these excavations, a Canaanite inscription on a stone fragment dating back to the 15th century BCE was discovered. A Canaanite teacher's message was also found in 1926 on two Akkadian clay tablets, one of which demanded overdue payment in grains and wine, providing evidence of schools in Palestine during the Late Bronze Age, similar to those found in Iraq.

The city continued to be inhabited during the Late Bronze Age, Iron Age, and, after a period of abandonment during the Iron Age, was resettled in the Hellenistic period. Shechem was destroyed several times at different periods and was entirely deserted in the early Roman period. It then transformed into the new city of "Neapolis," from which the current name of Nablus was derived.

Tell el-Far'ah is located northeast of the city of Nablus, about 11 kilometers away, on the road connecting Tubas and Nablus. It is situated on the edge of a rocky slope facing southeast-northeast. The site is also known as "Old Tirzah."

The French School of Archaeology in Jerusalem conducted nine excavation campaigns at the site between 1936 and 1960, under the supervision of De Vaux.

The origins of settlement at the site date back to the Late Neolithic period. During the Chalcolithic period, the site transformed into a small village, and during the Early Bronze Age, it expanded significantly. The settlement continued during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. The latest evidence of settlement at the site dates to the Iron Age.

The discovered model house at Tell el-Far'ah represents a typical example of residential structures from the Second Iron Age.

A long, broad knife with an almost regular shape, made of flintstone, dating back to the Early Bronze Age. It is known by archaeologists as Canaanite knives, representing a continuation of the tradition of making long knives that began in the Late Stone Age and the Copper Age, continuing their production during the Early Bronze Age in the third and second millennia BC. It is believed that these knives were produced using a copper chisel by striking it on the edge of the flintstone core to produce a long blade. Initially, these knives were produced as weapons, such as arrowheads, and in the Copper Age, they served as sickles for harvesting grain. In the Early Bronze Age, these knives were inserted into a wooden board pulled by animals, similar to traditional plowing for grain extraction.

Prior to the Early Bronze Age IV, lamps were clay dishes, but in this period, specialized terracotta lamps with four nozzles appeared for the first time, made of baked clay. Traces of burning indicate their use by humans. People used oil for lighting by immersing the wick's end in oil to produce light.

A small terracotta jug, made on a potter's wheel, found in the city of Jenin. It has a spherical body, a pointed base, a narrow neck, and a side handle. It is characterized by its black color. These small vessels were used for storing liquids.

It is a triangular dagger made of iron, with long, sharp double-edged blades and a pointed tip. The handle of the dagger is missing. Dagger and sword handles were typically made from organic materials like wood, bone, and ivory, which often decay and disappear over time. Daggers were used in wars and military conflicts alongside swords. A dagger is smaller than a sword. Swords and daggers appeared in the Bronze Age and their production continued into the Iron Age. They started being made of iron instead of bronze. This dagger was found with a collection of metal artifacts in a tomb dating back to the Iron Age II at the site of Al-Ubayyat, east of Bethlehem.

The Ushabti is a small glazed clay doll, also known as the faience shabti dolls, designed in the form of a mummy. They bear hieroglyphic inscriptions and were buried as talismans with the deceased. The primary source of information about them is the sixth chapter of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, spoken by the priest Nesnbasfe, who says: "O Ushabti, when Ozir the priest of Montu Nesnba-Sefi commands you to do any work in the realm of the afterlife, such as cultivating fields, irrigation, transporting sands from the east to the west across the river, you should answer: 'Yes, I will do it. I am here when you call me.'" They have been discovered in archaeological contexts in Bronze Age Palestine, particularly in Jericho graves, highlighting the depth of cultural relations between Canaan and Egypt.

A Pharaonic seal in the form of a ring, set in a golden frame, made of amethyst or amethyst-like semi-precious stone with a transparent blue color, bearing a Pharaonic inscription meaning "Beloved of Ra," where Ra is the ancient Egyptian sun god. The ring dates back to the Middle Bronze Age II and was found in a tomb in Samu'a, south of Hebron.

Small vessels made of terracotta, with a round shape, short neck, and wide opening, painted in red. These vessels were used by humans for their domestic needs to store liquids and food. Jenin.
 

A terracotta jug shaped like a pear, with a red color and polished surface, adorned with granulated edges, used for household purposes to store liquids like water, animal products, and oil. The special care in making this vessel and its decoration adds artistic and aesthetic value, in addition to its utilitarian value. Its history dates back to the Middle Bronze Age II and was found in a tomb in Samu'a, south of Hebron.

A human head statue made of baked clay with a reddish color, adorned with decorations on the forehead and neck area. It is a part of a statue. In ancient times, clay statues symbolized rulers and deities.

An open terracotta lamp from the Middle Bronze Age. It is a shallow dish with its edge pinched before firing to form a place for the lighting wick. These open lamps with a single wick appeared in the Middle Bronze Age, replacing the open lamps with four nozzles. The use of these lamps continued until the end of the Iron Age when they were replaced by closed lamps.

A terracotta water jug found in the Ramallah region. It is made on a potter's wheel, with a spherical shape, a medium-length neck, and a wide opening. It is sometimes called a "mudara," as travelers used it to carry drinking water during their journeys. It was also used to extract water from wells after being attached to a rope.

A terracotta cooking pot from the Iron Age II, made on a potter's wheel, with a spherical shape, a short and wide neck, and two ring-shaped handles at the pot's edges. The deep black color on the surface of the pot is evidence of its use for cooking purposes.

Deir al-Balah is located 13 km south of Gaza and was known as "Al-Darum" in the Semitic languages, meaning the south. It was also known as one of the gates of Gaza leading to Deir al-Balah, known as "Al-Darum." Deir al-Balah held strategic value as a station on the ancient coastal road.

Archaeological and historical sources indicate continuous human settlement from the late Bronze Age until the present. It fell into Muslim hands after the Battle of Wadi al-Milh and played a role in the Crusades, later reclaimed by the Ayyubids after the Treaty of Ramla.

Between 1972-1982, excavations were conducted on the Deir al-Balah beach by the occupying authority under the supervision of Trudy Dothan. The findings revealed human settlement from the late Bronze Age to the Byzantine period, including a large cemetery from the late Bronze Age.

The earliest settlement dates back to the second half of the 14th century BCE. Remains from this period include residential houses with more than 20 rooms, surrounded by a water tank previously used as a sand quarry. Large amounts of discovered bones indicate reliance on animal husbandry. The excavations also revealed the remains of a small fort with 15 rooms, surrounded by towers at its corners, dating back to the 13th century BCE. The site includes traces of an industrial area, a furnace, water basins for preparing clay coffins, and pottery dating back to the early Iron Age.

Excavations also uncovered a cemetery from the late Bronze Age used in the 14th and 13th centuries BCE. What distinguishes this cemetery is the clay coffins, each accommodating between two to four individuals. These coffins were placed in rock-cut tombs with simple graves. The cylindrical-shaped coffins feature a movable lid with depictions of facial features, arms, and human hands. Funerary offerings accompanying the deceased include funerary inscriptions, bowls, and large quantities of local, Greek, Cypriot, and imported Egyptian pottery.

The perfume vessel is an ivory spoon, part of a censer tool, engraved with a winged lion in the Assyrian style, dating back to the 7th century BCE. The artifact was stolen from Khirbet al-Kom, later leaked through local intermediaries to an Israeli antiquities dealer, who then sold it to the American archaeologist Michael Steinhardt in 2003, as part of a collection exceeding 180 stolen artifacts from the Middle East. The United States, in accordance with an official protocol, delivered the only piece to the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, returning stolen artifacts to their original countries, including one piece to Palestine and forty artifacts to Israel.

Among the artifacts handed over to the Israeli side was an agate amulet in the shape of a fish, also taken from Khirbet al-Kom, the same location from which the stolen ivory spoon was removed, now held by the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities. This piece represents one of tens of thousands of illegally acquired and transported artifacts from the occupied Palestinian territories, in violation of international humanitarian law.

Khirbet al-Kom is located 13 km west of the city of Hebron. Archaeological excavations were conducted in Khirbet al-Kom between 1967-1968 by the American biblical archaeologist William Dever, revealing a burial site from the Iron Age II. Subsequent excavations within the town of al-Kom revealed traces from the Iron Age II, including parts of the site's wall and gate. Additionally, evidence from the Early Bronze Age and Hellenistic period emerged in the excavations.

This is a pottery fragment bearing hieroglyphic inscriptions discovered during archaeological excavations in Palestine. It is an inscribed fragment on a pottery jar that bears the name Narmer (Mina). King Narmer is the first king and founder of the First Egyptian Dynasty. Similar fragments have been found at several sites in southern Palestine, such as Ein Besor, Rafah, Tell el-Khuweilfeh, and Tel Sheikh Ahmed Al-Arayni. The cartridge of King Narmer at these sites represents the earliest evidence of writing found in Palestine to date.

Its presence in Palestinian archaeological contexts, dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE, serves as evidence of political and cultural relations between Canaan and Egypt during the Early Bronze Age

The Canaanite alphabet is a pictorial and then alphabetic script that originated in the 19th century BCE, represented in the inscriptions of Wadi el-Hol (El-Hol Valley) in central Egypt, the Sinai inscriptions, and scattered inscriptions in Palestine. It is directly derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs. The two Wadi el-Hol inscriptions (1 and 2) were discovered in 1993 on the same rock cliff, approximately one meter above the ground, with a distance of about 1.2 meters between them. The two inscriptions are dated to the period between 1900-1850 BCE, based on adjacent hieroglyphic and hieratic inscriptions. They were inscribed by Canaanite workers and soldiers working in Egyptian mining expeditions in Wadi el-Hol. These inscriptions are among the oldest Canaanite inscriptions discovered to date, dating back to the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat I (1831-1806 BCE), and they contain 12 and 16 individual signs, respectively. They represent the oldest discovered alphabet inscriptions. The texts are written from right to left in both vertical and horizontal directions in ancient Canaanite (Sinaitic) script. The inscriptions are read as a single text, starting from the second inscription (Wadi el-Hol 2) and continuing to the first inscription (Wadi el-Hol 1). The script of the Wadi el-Hol inscriptions is similar to the Canaanite inscriptions from the Sinai site of Serabit el-Khadem, but the Wadi el-Hol inscriptions show a greater influence of hieroglyphic writing.

As for the Sinai inscriptions, they consist of two sets of stone inscriptions. The first set was discovered by the archaeologist Flinders Petrie in 1904 during his excavations at the temple of the Egyptian goddess Hathor in the Serabit el-Khadem site in Sinai. It consists of two groups: the first has 16 signs, and the second, discovered in 1935, has 34 signs. These inscriptions were considered a link between hieroglyphic pictorial writing and the Canaanite alphabet. They were written by Canaanite workers in the copper and turquoise mines in Sinai under the supervision of the Pharaohs. The script consists of 23 symbols, showing similarities to Egyptian hieroglyphic writing but adopting an alphabetic principle (acrophony), extracting the initial part of the shape of a written object and using it to represent the corresponding sound wherever it occurs. For example, using the head shape as a symbol for the letter "r" or using the house shape as a symbol for the letter "b." The language of these inscriptions is North Semitic (Canaanite), and their content is mostly votive inscriptions dedicated to the Canaanite sky god Baal, equivalent to the Egyptian goddess Hathor, for whom a temple was found at the site where these inscriptions were discovered. These inscriptions indicate the depth of cultural exchange between Egypt and Canaan.

The Canaanite caravan drawings on the walls of the Bani Hasan tomb depict mural art discovered on the tomb walls of the Egyptian official, Khnumhotep II, from the 12th Dynasty, around the beginning of the 19th century BCE. The drawings represent a trade caravan composed of 37 individuals, including men, women, and children from the land of Aamu. The caravan is accompanied by a number of loaded donkeys carrying kohl, musical instruments, weapons, and other tools. The caravan is depicted traveling from the land of Shutu in Aamu to Egypt, where an Egyptian official welcomes them. The caravan is led by a person named Ibsa, who is identified as an Amorite and holds the title "Overseer of Foreign Lands." The caravan paintings illustrate the nature of trade and cultural exchanges between the land of Canaan and Egypt.

A Canaanite inscription was written on a pottery shard discovered in 2008 at Khirbet Qeiyafa. The text consists of five lines, written with ink on a slightly curved pottery fragment measuring 15 cm × 16.5 cm. It is read from left to right, suggesting a date before the 11th century BCE due to the direction of the writing, although experts attribute it to the 10th century BCE. The inscription includes legal instructions reflecting social responsibility toward socially vulnerable groups in Canaanite society, such as slaves, widows, orphans, children, and strangers. The inscription attests to the presence of strangers within the community and urges assistance to them. It calls for the care of widows and orphans and demands that the king at the time intervene to alleviate social disparities and injustice.

Translation of the inscription:

1. Do not do [that], but worship [the]
2. Judge for the slave, the widow; judge for the orphan
3. [and] the stranger. Plead for the infant [and]
4. for the widow. Restore consideration for the poor in the presence of the king
5. Protect the poor and the slave [or] and [help] the stranger

A soft limestone slab inscribed with Canaanite Phoenician alphabet, dating back to the 10th century BCE, was discovered during archaeological excavations in 1908 at Tel el-Jazar - Abu Shusha (Jazar), northwest of Jerusalem. It is currently housed in the Museum of the Ancient Orient in Istanbul. The text consists of six lines describing the agricultural calendar of Palestinian farmers, estimating seasons in months, detailing agricultural activities, and specifying the duration for tasks such as plowing, harvesting, planting, or tending to specific crops. Some experts consider the inscription as an educational exercise. Its significance lies in reflecting the annual agricultural calendar of Palestinian farmers, supported by ethnographic evidence from traditional Palestinian farming communities, particularly in the studies of the German ethnographer Gustaf Dalman on the Palestinian agricultural calendar, notably in his book "Work and Customs in Palestine."

Inscription translation:

1. Two months for olive picking (October-November)
2. Two months for Sowing grains (December-January)
3. Two months for late cultivation (February-March)
4. One month for plowing the linen field (April)
5. One month for harvesting barley (May)
6. One month for harvesting and celebrations (June)
7. One month for tending to the vineyard (July-August)
8. One month for summer fruits (September)

The Canaanite Alphabet: Transition writing from Pictorial to Linear Form

Writing was found on a pottery fragment discovered in 1976 in the village of Sarta, affiliated with the Palestinian village of Sarta. Sarta is located 13 km east of the city of Ras El Ain, known for the Canaanite site of Aviq. The writing dates back to the 11th century BCE and consists of an inscription in cuneiform with five lines. It is a linear script written from left to right, representing a school exercise for a non-experienced Canaanite alphabet student who attempted the exercise in five lines. The last line contains 22 characters of the Canaanite alphabet with a rearrangement of the order of the letters "fa" and "ain." The fifth line:

ʾ b g d h (w) ḥ ṭ (z) y k l (m?) n s(?) f(?) ʿ ṣ q(?) q (r) sh t

The significance of this exercise lies in its derivation from the Canaanite alphabet and its indication of its spread in Palestine. It represents the process of transformation in Canaanite writing from pictorial to linear form.

Tal el-Dweer is located in the southern lowlands region, known as the Canaanite city of Lachish. Numerous ancient writings have been discovered at the site, including a comb bearing an ancient inscription dating back to the beginning of the alphabet in Palestine. In 2017, a Canaanite inscription was found engraved on a comb (2.5 cm X 3.5 cm) made of elephant ivory imported from the Nile Valley. The text consists of 17 characters, forming 7 words written in three horizontal lines. The inscription was unearthed during excavations at Tel el-Dweer (Lachish) in 2017, dating back to 1700 BCE. Researchers discovered lice remains between the comb's teeth. The text contains the oldest documented complete Canaanite verbal sentence to date, indicating the use of Canaanite writing in daily life, not limited to political, religious, or commercial elites. The inscription is written as a wish, stating: "I wish that this comb kills the lice of hair and beard," as follows:

Line 1: Let this comb kill

Line 2: the lice of hair and bear

Line 3: d

This inscription was discovered in 2005 during excavations at the site of Khirbet Zeta Al-Kharab, southwest of Jerusalem in the Lowlands region. The site is located approximately 30 km east of Ashkelon (Asqalan) and one and a half kilometers south of the Palestinian village of Zeta, which was displaced in 1948. The inscription is carved on a limestone rock on a wall and dates back to the 10th century BCE. It features a form of the Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet.

The inscription comprises an alphabetical arrangement in two lines:

The inscription includes a Canaanite alphabetical arrangement consisting of two lines:

First line: Aleph, Baa', Jeem, Daal, Haa', Waw, Zayn, Haa', Taa’, Yaa', Kaaf, Laam, Meem, Noon, Haa', Waw, Yaa', Seen, Faa’, Ayn, and Saad.

Second line: Qaaf, Raa', Sheen, and Taa’.

It is read horizontally from the top right to the left. These inscriptions were possibly used for educational purposes, as they were found on the wall of a house.

The inscription was discovered in 1880 on the inner wall of the Siloam Tunnel in the city of Jerusalem. The inscription was cut and stolen, and after its recovery, it was transferred to the Istanbul Museum in Turkey. It consists of six lines, dating back to the end of the 8th century BCE. Some attribute it to the Hellenistic period, and the text celebrates the moment when two teams of workers met in digging the tunnel or the watercourse, which was a significant event in the history of Jerusalem. The inscription occupies the lower part of a hollow rectangle, 50 cm in length and 66 cm in height. The text is written in distinct characters, with words separated by dots. The script is similar to that found in Moabite and Phoenician writings and inscriptions. While the tops of the letters are angular, their tails are long and curved.

The inscription immortalizes the moment when two teams of excavators (one starting from the spring of the Virgin Mary outside the city, and the other from within the city walls) met, signaling the completion of the digging process. The inscription describes the carving of limestone in the mountain to bring water from the spring of the Virgin Mary to the Silwan pool, which may have been inside the walls of the city of Jerusalem. The workers carved into the mountain from both sides, and the work continued until the workers met in the middle. The tunnel's length with its twists is 533 meters, and its width is 70–80 cm. The text does not contain any historical information, and it does not mention any scientific name, place name, deity name, or king's name at all. In any case, it cannot be considered a royal inscription.

The city of Jerusalem is situated in a mountainous area that is part of the Jerusalem mountain range, rising about 750 meters above sea level. Jerusalem holds a religious and historical significance unlike any other city, as it is the cradle of the three Abrahamic religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Its civilizational history spans over five thousand years, as archaeological excavations have revealed. The city has been known by various names throughout its history, including Ursalim, Jebus, Aelia Capitolina, Al-Quds, and Beit Al-Maqdis. Its history and the landmarks within it bear witness to successive civilizations, including the Bronze and Iron Ages, the Greek and Roman periods, and later the Islamic periods starting from the Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Crusader, Mamluk, and Ottoman periods. The city encompasses more than 220 landmarks, including the Church of the Nativity, the Dome of the Rock, Al-Aqsa Mosque, and the Western Wall (Wailing Wall). With its rich history and diverse monuments, the city serves as a unique model of human heritage.

The Old City of Jerusalem, with its layout, walls, markets, and sacred buildings, is considered a model for the Arab-Islamic city. The city is divided into neighborhoods, including the Islamic Quarter, Christian Quarter, Armenian Quarter, Jewish Quarter, and the area of the Noble Sanctuary. The estimated area of the city is around one thousand dunams, with the Noble Sanctuary occupying about one-sixth of the Old City.

Archaeological excavations in Jerusalem have been ongoing since 1863, starting with Charles Warren's campaign. Over forty major excavations have taken place in the city since then, mostly concentrated in the vicinity of the Noble Sanctuary. The first organized excavations were conducted by the Palestine Exploration Fund between 1863 and 1867 under the supervision of British officer Warren, who dug a series of tunnels around the area of the Sanctuary. Subsequent excavations by Bliss and Dickie between 1894 and 1897 focused on the southern part of the city, followed by Parker's excavations between 1909 and 1911, with Vincent publishing the results in 1913-1914. Financed by the wealthy Jew Rothschild, Failey conducted excavations on the Mount of Olives overlooking Silwan between 1923 and 1925. Duncan, Macalister, and Crowfoot conducted excavations in the southern region between 1934 and 1948, and in 1961, British archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon and Father de Vaux excavated the southern slopes. After the city's occupation in 1967, Israeli authorities conducted extensive excavations, focusing on the areas adjacent to the Sanctuary from the west and south and the Mount of Olives overlooking Silwan, as well as other parts of the city.

The oldest archaeological evidence discovered on the southeastern slope of the Old City, overlooking the town of Silwan and known as the Ophel, near the Virgin's Spring, dates back to the Bronze Age. Important discoveries include remnants of a massive wall and a stone-built tower on the eastern slope from the excavations conducted by British archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon, dating to the same period, along with scattered remains of buildings along the slope, indicating the city's establishment in the Bronze Age.

Evidence of the Iron Age appears in various parts of the city. Despite biblical narratives of monumental construction during King David's reign, what Dr. Kenyon found amounts to walls and scattered remnants. The use of the eastern wall continued until the 7th century BCE, and some simple houses from this period were uncovered. Old Testament accounts describe the city's residents as Amorites, Jebusites, and Hittites.

From the 10th to the 8th century BCE, Jerusalem served as a regional center until it came under Assyrian rule around 722 BCE. It remained under Assyrian influence until falling to the Babylonians around 586 BCE. Modern historical research challenges all historical claims derived from Old Testament narratives about this period. A wall was built during the 5th century BCE, along with the gate excavated by Crowfoot. The history of Jerusalem presented in the early Torah scriptures seems to have been constructed in this later period, blending reality with myth. Shortly after Babylonian rule, Jerusalem came under Persian control, lasting until Alexander the Great entered the East.

During the Roman period, King Herod rebuilt the city with a new plan. Herod constructed a temple for the god Jupiter, three massive towers named Hippicus, Phasael, and Mariamne, and to the south of these towers, Herod built a palace. Herod also reconstructed a tower from the late Greek period called the Baris and named it Antonia. In Hadrian's era, the Roman city was rebuilt as Aelia Capitolina, a Roman colony, on a square plan intersected by two main streets, as evidenced by archaeological excavations showing sections of the city walls and gates near the Column Gate and to the east of it. The Roman-era ruins appeared in various parts of the city, acquiring a Roman character.

After Christianity became a recognized religion following the Nicene Council in 325 CE, the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre began, and construction activities in Jerusalem continued between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, filling the city with churches and monasteries, as evidenced by the Madaba Map from the 6th century. Additionally, remains of residential houses, streets, and a group of Byzantine tombs have been found.

After the Battle of Ajnadin, the Arabs gained control of southern Palestine. Following the decisive Battle of Yarmouk, which determined the fate of Syria, Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Muslim Arabs in the year 638. It reclaimed its place in Arab history, becoming the sanctuary of Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, the first of the two Qiblas, and the third of the holy sanctuaries. Jerusalem, initially known as Iliya, became the capital of the southern part of Palestine after the conquest and the spiritual capital for Arabs and Muslims. In 660, Muawiyah was crowned caliph in Jerusalem. During the Umayyad period, the city was reconstructed, showcasing architectural marvels such as the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque. Recent excavations revealed Umayyad palaces near the sacred precinct. Despite being distant from the caliphate center during the Abbasid era, Jerusalem received attention, leading to the reconstruction of Al-Aqsa Mosque and renovations in the Dome of the Rock.

The Fatimid caliph Al-Zahir also contributed to the rebuilding of the Dome of the Rock and parts of Al-Aqsa Mosque. The Fatimids reinforced the city's fortifications, leading to conflicts with the Seljuks, paving the way for the Crusader invasion and the occupation of Jerusalem. The city became the capital of the Latin Kingdom until its liberation by Salah ad-Din Al-Ayyubi after the Battle of Hattin in 1187.

During the Mamluk period, Jerusalem witnessed massive construction projects, including public buildings like markets, schools, hospitals, mosques, Sufi lodges, corners, and fountains. The current Arab-Islamic nature of Jerusalem is a result of the Mamluk-Ottoman period.

In the Ottoman era, walls were built around Jerusalem during the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Markets, baths, schools, Sufi lodges, and fountains were established. In the late 19th century, the city began to expand beyond the city walls.

After the Ottoman rule that lasted for centuries, Jerusalem was occupied by Britain after World War I in 1917 and remained under British mandate until 1948 when parts of it were occupied by Jews. In 1967, the entire city came under Israeli occupation.

Jerusalem is rich in its cultural heritage, and its Old City and walls were listed as a World Heritage Site in 1982, at the request of the Kingdom of Jordan.

Sebastiya is situated approximately 10 kilometers northwest of Nablus, at the crossroads of two major historical roads: the northern road from Nablus to Jenin and the western road from the Jordan Valley to the Mediterranean coast. Its location provides a splendid view of the surrounding agricultural lands. Sebastiya was a regional capital during the second Iron Age and a significant urban center during the Greek and Roman periods. It is one of the oldest inhabited places in Palestine and retains its ancient name, indicating a strong element of cultural continuity. Christian and Islamic traditions suggest the presence of the tomb of John the Baptist in the area.

A series of excavations were conducted at this site, the first between 1908 and 1910 by Harvard University. The latest excavations were carried out by the Palestinian Antiquities Department in 1994, revealing a part of the city dating back to the Iron Age, including the Royal Palace complex and a central square. One of the major discoveries was a collection of ivory pieces dating to the eighth and ninth centuries BCE.

Sebastiya flourished during the second Iron Age as a regional capital. After the Assyrians captured it in 722 BCE during the reign of Sargon II, it became the administrative center of the Assyrian province in Palestine. Later, it fell under Persian rule and remained the capital of the central district in Palestine. Alexander the Great captured the city in 332 BCE, and massive fortifications, including a circular tower, were added. John Hyrcanus destroyed the city in 107 BCE, and in 63 CE, it became part of the province of Syria. Later, Emperor Augustus presented the city to Herod, who renamed it Sebaste in his honor (Sebaste in Greek means Augustus), and it was called Augusta by Severus in 299 CE. During the Roman period, extensive architectural projects were executed, including the city walls, gates, a colonnaded street with 600 columns, a church, a public square, a theater, a temple for Augustus, a stadium, an aqueduct, and tombs.

In the Byzantine period, Sebastiya became an episcopal seat, and a church was built in honor of St. John the Baptist on the southern slope of the castle. Two churches were constructed to honor St. John in the center of the old village, one Byzantine and the other for the Franks. A mosque was also built to honor the Prophet Yahya (St. John the Baptist).

The current town of Sebastiya, including its archaeological remains, the historic town, and its natural and cultural scenery, is a major tourist attraction in Palestine. Several restoration projects have been carried out in the historical center, including the restoration of the mosque and the shrine of the Prophet Yahya, the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, the massive Roman mausoleum, the olive press, Kaid's Palace, and old buildings, as well as a pedestrian pathway.

Khirbet Qumran is located 15 km south of Jericho, on the western shore of the Dead Sea. This is the site where the famous Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. According to popular accounts, a Palestinian shepherd found these manuscripts in 1947, leading to an extensive search for manuscripts in the surrounding caves and excavations at the site. The Department of Antiquities of Jordan, in collaboration with the École Biblique in Jerusalem, conducted the excavations, revealing a significant number of manuscripts and thousands of fragments in caves overlooking the Dead Sea. The monastery belonged to the Essene sect, who lived in seclusion on the shores of the Dead Sea, practicing their rituals away from public life.

The manuscripts include copies of the Bible, apocryphal writings, writings of the Qumran community, including interpretations and sect laws, and manuscripts of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness and the Damascus Document. The dating of these manuscripts ranges from the 2nd century BCE to 68 CE, primarily dating to the 1st century CE. The study of these manuscripts has become an academic field known as the Dead Sea Scrolls studies, providing valuable information about the history of Judaism and the early stages of the development of Christianity.

After the discovery of these manuscripts, numerous excavations were carried out at the site and the surrounding caves. A large complex of buildings was uncovered, including communal facilities, an advanced water system consisting of numerous pools, cisterns, a library, a dining hall, and a large cemetery.

Dar al-Darb is located southeast of the village of Qarawa Bani Hasan in the Salfit Governorate. In Arabic, the name means "House of Coinage," and the connection between this name and the site is not clear. There is no evidence supporting a link between this name and "darb" in the sense of a road, as mentioned in some social media sources. The site was described in the Western Palestine Survey, and the term "Dar al-Darb" appeared on British maps.

The site consists of tombs carved into solid rock, containing three chambers. The facade features Ionic-style columns and a decorated cornice. The decorations include triangles and various floral designs, closely resembling the tombs of the sultans in Jerusalem from the first century CE. This private tomb is believed to belong to a figure of social or military elite.

The Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, in collaboration with the Municipality of Salfit, undertook tourism development work at the site, transforming it into an archaeological park. However, work was halted by the Israeli occupation authorities, attempting to link it to nearby settlements.

A network of water systems was constructed between the mountains of Hebron and Jerusalem to supply the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem with water. Two channels were established for the water system to bring water from Solomon's Pools to Jerusalem. These are the lower water channel from Ain Atan to Jerusalem and the upper water channel, which rises about thirty meters. Two other channels also carry water to Solomon's Pools from Wadi Arroub and Wadi Al-Biyar.

The water channel in Wadi Arroub is known as the "Sabil Channel." When tracing its path, it becomes apparent that it transports water from Solomon's Pools underground through Bethlehem, traversing the Jihon Valley and running parallel to the western slope of the Thouri Valley until it reaches the Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem. The water channel passes through the mountainous areas of Bethlehem, then turns along the edges of the hills until it enters a tunnel near the village of Sur Baher, south of Jerusalem. It runs along the mountain slopes and parallel to the southern slopes of Jerusalem until it reaches the area of the Noble Sanctuary, where cisterns and channels were built for this purpose. The length of the Sabil water channel is approximately 68 kilometers.

The Sabil Channel is considered the longest water channel in Palestine, and it has been in use for several centuries. It holds a unique function in the cultural traditions of the residents of Jerusalem and Bethlehem, playing a crucial role in the traditional settlement of people and land use, especially in the Arroub Valley.

The water systems in Jerusalem work to convey water from both Wadi Arroub and Ain Al-Baloua to Jerusalem. These sources are located south of Jerusalem and consist of three main clusters: Wadi Arroub, which rises 810 meters above sea level; Wadi Al-Biyar, which rises 870 meters above sea level; and Solomon's Pools, which rise 800 meters above sea level. The Arroub Channel runs between Ain Kuziba and the hills of Hebron to Solomon's Pools, covering a distance of about forty kilometers. The channel collects water from the springs of Wadi Arroub, which accumulates and is stored.

Four kilometers south of Bethlehem are Solomon's Pools, also known as the Marajee Pools, consisting of three pools extending from west to east for a distance of 500 meters. They are named after the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, who renovated the water channels supplying Jerusalem with water.

The water system in the upper part of Wadi Arroub was established during the Roman period, from 37 BCE to 325 CE, by building two reservoirs. This system evolved during the Islamic periods by constructing the third large reservoir during the Mamluk Sultanate under the reign of Sultan Al-Zahir Khushqadam in 1460 CE.

The water system that supplied Jerusalem from the early Roman period until the British Mandate era forms a unique system, considering the long distance the water traveled, whether flowing into the pools from Wadi Al-Biyar or leaving them towards Jerusalem, covering a distance of about 44 kilometers.

Due to the significance of this water source, a fortress was built for protective purposes called the "Qal'at Al-Birk," located north of the upper pool east of the Jerusalem-Hebron road. It was constructed during the reign of Sultan Ottoman II, Ahmed's son, in 1617 CE, to protect the pools, water sources, and pilgrim caravans from attacks. The fortress played a vital role in maintaining security and guarding the springs and the Sabil Channel for an extended period. The fortress consists of a rectangular building, measuring 70 meters from south to north and 45 meters from east to west, with a wall thickness of 40 cm. Its total area is about 3528 square meters, with one main entrance in the middle of the west wall featuring an inscription indicating the construction date. In each corner of the fortress, there is a square-shaped tower with two floors. The upper part of each tower shows arrow openings, while the lower part has an entrance leading into the fortress with a staircase to the upper floor. The fortress comprises fifty small rooms built on the east-west wall designated for soldiers' residence, their belongings, and equipment. In the southwest corner, a small mosque was built, and the fortress has an internal courtyard of about three dunams allocated for the rest of the horses and soldiers. The southern part contains a spring specific to the fortress known as "Ain Al-Qal'a," recently restored as part of a large tourism project in the area.

The St. Hilarion Monastery was revealed at the Tal Um Amer site, identified as the historical location of Tabaitha mentioned on the sixth-century map of Madaba and in classical sources. The site was discovered in 1991, and excavations were conducted by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities in collaboration with the French Biblical School over several seasons between 1996 and 2023. The excavations revealed the remains of a large monastery from the Byzantine and early Islamic periods, consisting of two churches, a baptismal hall, a reception area, as well as monastery facilities, including a dining hall, wells, a clay oven, drainage networks, and a cemetery. The building was paved with stone tiles and mosaic floors, featuring Greek inscriptions mentioning the name of St. Hilarion, the founder of monasticism in Palestine. The monastery was equipped with a hostel for pilgrims and a large bathhouse with rooms for cold, warm, and hot water to serve pilgrims and travelers. The site holds exceptional value due to its association with St. Hilarion, the founder of monasticism in Palestine. Hilarion was born in the city of Tabaitha near Gaza in 291 AD. He studied in Alexandria and was greatly influenced by the Egyptian saint Anthony. At the age of 15, in 306 AD, he returned to Gaza, where he gained fame. In 329 AD, Hilarion founded the first monastery in Palestine. During the persecution of Christians in the era of Emperor Julian (361-363 AD), Hilarion migrated to Cyprus, where he passed away in 371 AD. Saint Hesychius later transferred his remains to Gaza. Saint Jerome wrote his biography in 390 AD. St. Hilarion is venerated in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches, and rituals honoring him are observed in Europe, especially in Italy, Cyprus, and Sicily. His feast day is celebrated in Cyprus on October 21 each year. The site was placed on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2005 as a cultural site, preparing for official inscription on the World Heritage List.

The main church was constructed by Queen Helena, who arrived in Palestine in 325 AD. She chose a group of caves believed to be the birthplace of Jesus Christ as the site for building the church. Its construction was completed in 339 AD above the caves. The church was destroyed during the Samaritan revolt in 529 AD and was renovated during the Frankish occupation of Jerusalem. Remarkably, the church was spared from destruction when the Persians invaded Palestine in 614 AD. The invaders saw the beautiful mosaic decorations at its entrance depicting Magi in Persian attire, allowing it to remain intact.

The church holds religious significance as it is located above the sacred site, the cave where Jesus Christ was born, an event of universal importance. It is adorned with artistic elements like mosaics on the interior. The church contains some caves with tombs, as well as another cave housing the tomb of Saint Jerome, who translated the Bible from Old Hebrew to Latin.

Architecturally, the Church of the Nativity is approximately 54 meters long, divided into a nave and four aisles by four rows of columns. Each column is six meters tall, made from a single stone, with a total of 44 columns originally quarried from the "Cross" quarry near Bethlehem. There are two doors on the sides of the church, opened during the Frankish era to facilitate entry and exit from the cave. The church also features an altar on the right, where the Orthodox and Armenian liturgies are conducted separately. Beneath the altar, a silver star bears the Latin inscription "Here Jesus Christ was born of the Virgin Mary," dated 1717. To the left, there is a two-step low area, the Holy Manger, covered with white marble sheets. The cave faces east, and the total area of the Church of the Nativity is approximately 1040 square meters.

A silver Greek coin of the tetradrachm denomination. The obverse side features the head of Heracles, a Greek mythological hero and son of the god Zeus, facing to the right. The reverse side depicts Zeus seated, holding a scepter in his left hand and a thunderbolt in his right, with the name "Alexander" in Greek.

Known in archaeological literature as the Palestinian-Arabic currency, this is a silver coin from the Persian period struck in Athens. It is considered the oldest currency used by people in Palestine for economic and financial transactions, replacing the barter system. The obverse side features the image of Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom, wearing a helmet adorned with olive leaves. On the reverse side, there is an owl, an olive branch, a crescent, and three letters A-Θ-E, indicating Athens.

A glass kohl tube with a greenish hue, featuring small handles on both ends, and a raised circular handle. The tube has glass thread decorations on its body. Inside the tube, a metal applicator, the tool used by women to apply kohl, was found. These items were discovered in Atara village.

A terracotta perfume flask was found in Ramallah and is known by its Greek name, "Anjuntrion." It has a spindle-like shape with a long ring-shaped base and a long cylindrical neck. It was used for storing fragrant substances. Some believe it was a funerary vessel used to store tears and placed in tombs with the deceased. Its usage was prevalent during the Hellenistic period in the Mediterranean Basin region, and these vessels have been discovered in many archaeological sites in Palestine.

An earthenware jar, known by its Greek name "Amphora," crafted on a potter's wheel, was found in the northern village of Asira, north of Nablus. It has a sleek design with a pointed base and two ring handles where the vessel's shoulders meet the neck of the jar. These jars were used to store liquids such as water and oil.

A Roman bronze follis bearing a half-length portrait of Emperor Constantine the Great (307-337 AD) on the obverse side, and on the reverse side, it shows the camp gate and two towers. The follis is a small denomination in the Roman monetary system, a part of the solidus, which is the Roman gold denarius. The use of the follis continued in later currencies up to the present day.

A Roman gold denarius (Aureus) featuring Emperor Nero on the obverse side, crowned with laurel, facing right, with Latin inscriptions around him. The reverse side shows the goddess Roma holding a dagger in her right hand and a spear in her left, with her right foot placed on weapons, and inscriptions encircling the piece. It was discovered in the village of Shabtin, west of Ramallah.

A small stone box used to store the remains of infants from the Roman era. The practice of collecting bones after the decomposition of the body was common during this period. While the bones of adults were placed in large boxes, those of children were placed in these smaller containers. This box was discovered in a Roman cemetery in Ramallah.

An oval-shaped terracotta lamp with a brownish hue, featuring fishbone-like decorations surrounding the opening that terminate in two circles at the lighting aperture. It was used for illumination.

The Madaba mosaic map represents the oldest and most detailed map of the Holy Land, encompassing Palestine, Jordan, and Lower Egypt. Its origins trace back to the 6th century CE, resembling a tourist map of Palestine from the Byzantine period. Discovered in 1884 in the city of Madaba, Jordan, the map is a large mosaic floor from the Byzantine period. It was later restored and incorporated into the building of the Church of St. George. In 1897, Father Kleopas Koikylides drew and published the map, and in 1906, the first colored reproductions were published by the architects Balmacara and Gothe. The map has undergone several restoration efforts and is dated to the 6th century.

The current dimensions of the map are approximately ten and a half meters in length and five meters in width, covering an overall area of about 30 square meters. It consists of around 700,000 mosaic cubes. The map details the topography of Palestine and Lower Egypt, portraying plains and valleys in shades of white with a touch of yellow, mountains in brown, green, blue, pink, and yellow, and bodies of water in blue, brown, and black. Symbols representing cities, villages, walls, churches, other structures, humans, animals, and plants in various forms are depicted. Greek inscriptions, some in black on a light background, others in white on a dark background, and red inscriptions denoting special significance, include quotes from sacred texts.

The preserved sections of the map depict the Holy Land, with Jerusalem at its center, representing the navel of the universe. The map is oriented towards the east, in alignment with the orientation of most churches. It illustrates topographical features such as the Jordan River flowing towards the Dead Sea, the eastern Jordanian mountains extending to Karak, the southern regions reaching Hebron, Beit Jibrin, the mountainous regions, the Palestinian coastal lands with Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Gaza, and the southern desert in the Negev with Be'er Sheva. Additionally, a portion of the Mediterranean Sea and the Nile Delta is included. The Madaba map holds great historical significance as a genuine geographical and topographical map, making it the oldest and most accurate map of Palestine before the advent of modern maps.

A Byzantine bronze follis, derived from the Latin word "Follis," struck in Constantinople, weighing 16.54 grams. The obverse side features a half-length portrait of Emperor Anastasius I with a pearl-adorned crown, wearing a robe, and his face turned to the right. The scene is surrounded by Latin inscriptions revealing the emperor's name. On the reverse side, there's a large letter "M" at the center, flanked by stars on the left and right, with a cross above them, and a letter "B" below, which signifies the mint and the Constantinople mintmark. This piece was found in the Hebron region.

A Byzantine gold solidus, a Latin word meaning a coin, made of pure gold weighing 4.5 grams. The obverse side features a depiction of Heraclius, Heraclius Constantine, and Heraclonas standing, holding crosses on a globe, representing the world. On the reverse side, there's a large cross supported by three steps, with the letter "A" to its right, symbolizing the mint, surrounded by Latin inscriptions. Below the cross's steps is an emblem of the mint.

A terracotta lamp with a lozenge shape and a ring-shaped base. These lamps were made by a two-part mold, one upper and one lower part, which were engraved with decorations and inscriptions. Afterward, they were joined before being placed in the kiln. The lamp's opening features a common Greek inscription: "The light of Christ shines upon the whole world." This lamp bears clear Christian religious symbols and was discovered in a Byzantine-era tomb in Atara, north of Ramallah.

The olive tree is a long-lived and evergreen tree in the Mediterranean. The history of olive trees in Palestine dates back to about five thousand years when the Canaanites first cultivated them in the early Bronze Age. Archaeological excavations and historical sources indicate widespread olive cultivation and oil extraction throughout Palestine. Age measurements of olive trees in the Garden of Gethsemane in Jerusalem reveal their existence since the 10th and 11th centuries AD. The term "Gethsemane" is derived from Syriac, meaning an olive press.

The process of olive oil extraction involved stone presses in Palestinian villages, using different methods, including the stone mortar press to meet urgent needs. The "Bad" system represented a significant advancement in the history of olive oil, allowing the mechanical power of animals and humans to efficiently rotate the stone and press the olives. The "Bad" system persisted in traditional Palestinian presses until the beginning of the last century when it was replaced by mechanical presses.

The "Bad" consists of a pierced round stone in its center called the "Duras," rotating on the edge of a horizontal stone called the "Qasa." Afterward, the crushed olive paste is compressed using a stone or metal press to extract and separate the oil from the pomace. The oil is then stored in various-sized ceramic jars for use in trade.

Common olive tree varieties in Palestine include Bari, Nabali, Hawari, Malisi, Suri, Shamali, and Dhakari, varying in quality and oil yield. The olive tree is a pillar of the agricultural economy in Palestine, serving as a source of food, medicine, and heating. The saying, "Oil builds the house," reflects the economic importance of olive oil, which was historically exported from Palestine to neighboring countries.

The olive tree holds deep meanings in Palestinian heritage, serving as a blessed tree in Islamic, Christian, and Jewish religious beliefs. It symbolizes eternity in the story of the flood, is linked to the ascension of Jesus on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, and is mentioned in the Quran as part of a great oath. The olive tree has become a symbol of security and peace.

The olive harvest season, locally known as "Al-Jaddad," is an annual celebratory season in Palestine. Farmers often refer to a fertile year as "Masiyah" and a low-yield year as "Shaltoni." The harvesting process is traditionally done by hand or using a tool called "Al-Jaddadeh." In modern times, olive harvesting is also carried out using harvesting tools.

In 2005, under the theme "Palestine, Land of Olives and Vines," the olive tree was included in the national list of world heritage sites with outstanding universal value, representing both tangible and intangible aspects and being an essential part of Palestine's cultural landscape.

In the excavations conducted by the Palestinian Antiquities Authority in 1996, three game boards resembling the Sija game were discovered in Gaza. Also known as "Al-Bronjia," these game boards are incised on stone pieces. They were published by Dr. Hamdan Taha and Dr. Khairat Van Der Kooij in the book "The Hydraulic System at Khirbat Bal'ama," 2007. The game, known globally, is referred to as "Nine Men's Morris" in English-speaking cultures and as "Muhlspiel" in German. It is played by two players for leisure and to pass the time.

The game consists of three central squares intersected by four vertical lines, connected by lines from the middle of each side of the inner square to the middle of the corresponding side of the outer square. The pieces are played on the corner points and the points where the lines intersect, creating 24 playable points. Two opponents take turns placing their nine pieces each on the board, alternating without a specified order. The objective is to try to get three pieces of the same color in a row, either horizontally or vertically. Each time this is achieved, the opponent's piece is removed until they have fewer than three pieces, or the opponent becomes unable to continue playing.

Similar examples of this game were found in Atlit, Qal'at, and Jerusalem dating back to the twelfth century. However, the game first appeared in the Roman and Byzantine periods. An example of the game was found depicted on a ceramic plate from the Ayyubid-Mamluk period in 1985. This widespread presence indicates that the game was common in Palestine and continues to be played to the present day.

A stone gaming board resembling a checkerboard, engraved on a limestone slab. It is a recreational game board divided into several squares, played between two players using small stones or fruit pits. This game is known by various names among different cultures, and the winner is the one who lines up their pieces in a single row. It was discovered in Khirbet Bala'ama, Jenin.

Hisham's Palace is located on the northern bank of Wadi Nueima in the Jordan Valley, approximately 2 kilometers north of the center of Jericho. The site is known as the ruins of Khirbat al-Mafjar. The palace is attributed to the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (724-743 CE / 105-125 AH) based on some discovered written evidence at the site. However, it is now believed that his successor, Caliph Walid II, was the one who constructed the palace in the period between 743-744 CE for relaxation and leisure on the outskirts of the Sham Desert. The palace was destroyed by a severe earthquake that struck the region around 749 CE / 131 AH before its completion. The site was excavated by the Palestinian Antiquities Department between 1935-1948. In 2006, the Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage resumed excavation in the bathhouse area under the supervision of Dr. Hamdan Taha. Joint Palestinian-American excavations were conducted between 1910-1915 under the supervision of Dr. Hamdan Taha and Dr. Donald Whitcomb. The excavations revealed the north gate of the palace, a large grape press, and the remains of the Abbasid estate built atop the Umayyad structures.

The site consists of the palace, bathhouse facilities, a mosque, and an ornate water basin, surrounded by an incomplete outer wall. The first three buildings are aligned on an axis extending from north to south, to the west of the palace's front square, where a fountain is located in the center. The area north of the bathhouse underwent partial excavations, revealing a series of rooms believed to be part of an inn and housing for palace workers, and an estate from the Abbasid period.

The palace is a two-story square building surrounded by circular silent towers at the corners. The entrance to the palace served as a winding passage surrounded by decorated stone benches on both sides. The palace rooms are arranged around a central courtyard surrounded by four arcaded corridors. The arrangement of the ground floor rooms suggests their use for guests, servants, as well as storage. In the southern part, there is a small mosque with a mihrab facing the qibla. Stairs at the opposing corners of the courtyard lead to the upper floor, indicating a residential suite.

In the western part of the central square, there is a stone staircase leading to a front-ground chamber that opens to a barrel-vaulted room, known as the Sirdab, which served as the caliph's private bathhouse. The large mosque is attached to the northern wall of the palace, with a standing mihrab. The mosque has a rectangular plan, and its roof was supported by two rows of arches resting on columns.

The grand bathhouse is located on the northern side of the palace. It consists of a covered domed passage on the eastern side, a vestibule, a domed reception room, a series of small bathing rooms, and toilets. In the southern part of the bathhouse, there is a swimming pool measuring 20 meters in length and a depth of a meter and a half.

In the northwest corner of the hot bath, there is the Diwan, a small reception chamber with a floor paved with mosaics depicting various geometric patterns, including the famous scene of lions and deer under the orange or life tree. In the front square of the palace, there is an ornate water basin. Sculptures and stone and gypsum statues with animal and human forms were widely used throughout the palace to decorate walls, columns, crowns, and ceilings. One of the statues may symbolize the Umayyad Caliph Walid. The palace's water supply was facilitated by an uncovered channel from the nearby springs, namely Ein Diuk and Ein Nueima.

After 1995, the Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage at the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities executed an extensive program to rehabilitate the site as an archaeological park in collaboration with local and international institutions. The archaeological park now includes a reception office, an interpretation center, a mosaic museum, a laboratory, internal walkways, explanatory panels, and tourist facilities such as bathrooms and parking. In 2018, the mosaic floor in the grand bath was covered.

Struck in Damascus during the reign of Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik, 86-96 AH (705-715 CE). The obverse side features the following inscriptions at the center: "There is no god but Allah, He is One, He has no partner." In the border, it reads, "Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, whom He sent with guidance and the religion of truth, to manifest it over all religion." The reverse side at the center reads: "Allah is One, Allah is the Eternal. He neither begets nor is born." In the border, it reads, "In the name of Allah." This dinar was minted in the year eighty-eight.

The seal of the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan was discovered in the village of Abu Shusha (Jazr), near the city of Ramla, during excavations by Max van Berchem at the site in 1903. Max van Berchem had borrowed it from the Museum of Antiquities in Istanbul since Palestine was under Ottoman administration during that period, and important archaeological materials were transported to Istanbul.

Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, the Umayyad Caliph, ruled during the period from 685 to 705. His name is associated with numerous architectural projects in Palestine, especially in the city of Jerusalem. The seal is made of bronze in the form of a medallion, bearing inscriptions, the caliph's name, and geometric and animalistic decorations on both sides.

The seal features inscriptions on both sides:

First Side:

Center: A central circle with a certain geometric shape at the top. Above it are two circles with the repeated phrase "(For) Abdullah ibn Abdul-Lak." Below the meeting point of the triangle's sides with the central circle, animalistic shapes are drawn, representing symmetrical ducks.

Surrounding: "La ilaha illallah Muhammad Rasul Allah." Which means: There is no deity but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God.

Second Side:

Center: It bears the name "Palestine" written in Kufic script. Below it, there is a decorative line with intricate knot-like patterns, and beneath that, an animalistic drawing of two lions looking backward with a lotus flower between them.

Surrounding: Not clear (may be a plant illustration or a type of writing).

Umayyad statue head, Hisham's Palace (Mafjar), made of gypsum in a Roman-style mold, used for decoration in the Great Bath. All facial details are clear, including the mouth, nose, and ears. It seems that glass beads or inlays were placed where the eyes should be, and the strands of hair are visible. This statue represents a continuation of Roman and Byzantine traditions in sculpture.

An Abbasid silver dirham struck at the Dar al-Salam (Baghdad) mint, weighing 4.20 grams, dated 193 AH during the reign of Caliph Muhammad al-Amin ibn al-Rashid (193-196 AH / 809-811 CE). The Abbasid dirhams bear the following inscriptions in Kufic script: on the obverse, "There is no god but Allah, He is One, He has no partner," and in the border, "Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, whom He sent with guidance and the religion of truth, to manifest it over all religion." The reverse reads, "Allah is One, Allah is the Eternal. He neither begets nor is born," and in the border, "In the name of Allah." This dirham was minted in the year 193.

A hexagonal-shaped Abbasid pottery lamp with a small handle and a flat base. It is adorned with fishscale and vegetal patterns around the light hole. Found in the grave at Tayyiba, Ramallah.

An Abbasid pottery lamp, with an elevated oil hole. It has a ring-shaped handle and a long nozzle for the wick. From al-Khadir, Tayyiba.

The sugar industry flourished as a major activity in medieval Palestine. Cultivation of sugar cane in the Jordan Valley and coastal regions predates its use in sugar production. The process of cultivating sugar cane and producing sugar requires abundant water for irrigation and operational needs of the mills. Early sources indicate the spread of sugar cane cultivation in the Jordan Valley and the Palestinian coast. Yaqut al-Hamawi praised the quality of sugar produced in Jericho in 1225, and the traveler Borshad visited it while it was in operation in 1283.

Two seasons of excavation and restoration work were conducted at the site between 2000-2001 by the Palestinian Antiquities Department under the scientific supervision of Dr. Hamdan Taha and field supervision of Mr. Wael Hamamra. The excavations revealed remains of an integrated industrial facility for sugar production, located northwest of the city of Jericho, 500 meters west of Tell al-Sultan. The site is a unique industrial facility used in sugar manufacturing during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. The site is mentioned in many historical sources from the medieval era.

The Sugar Mills site consists of three main components: the water system, the press, and the agricultural lands. The remains of the industrial facilities at the site include the waterwheel, courtyard, storage rooms, press, pressing room, clarification basin, hearth, kitchen, and storage rooms. The mill was operated by water brought to it from the springs of Nuway'ma and Diyar, through specially constructed channels for this purpose.

The archaeological findings indicate various activities related to sugar production, including pottery vessels, especially clay molds used in sugar production known as "abaliq," clay sieves, metal objects, coins, and Arabic inscriptions. Coins from the Ayyubid period were also discovered.

The Tower of Far'a is situated on the edge of a rocky cliff at the entrance of Wadi al-Far'a, about one kilometer east of the city of Nablus, where the valley slopes eastward towards the Jordan Valley plain. The tower stands as a distinctive architectural landmark surrounded by fertile agricultural lands and olive fields. It has been described in archaeological surveys, with Victor Guérin in 1874 portraying it as a massive square tower, each side measuring 20 meters, constructed with large stones. Its eastern facade stands erect, while the other walls have suffered more extensive ruin. A cut rock pool surrounds the tower. The tower is encompassed by an external rectangular stone wall measuring 60 by 40 meters, as described by Conder and Kitchener in the Survey of Western Palestine in 1881. The tower's stones appear to have been cut from a nearby quarry, with visible remnants still apparent.

In 2014, a joint Palestinian-British team, supervised by Dr. Andrew Petersen, documented the tower architecturally. They were able to reconstruct the ground plan and the first-floor plan. The lengths reach 15.5 meters on each side, with the entrance located in the center of the western side. The door leads to a large room with a barrel-vaulted ceiling, measuring 8.75 meters in length, 7.80 meters in width, and 5.90 meters in height. This room is illuminated by two windows in the upper part of the chamber. In the southeast corner, an internal staircase adjacent to the wall leads to a passage inside the vault. Below the staircase is a well opening, suggesting a secured water source for defenders inside and outside. The staircase reaches the first floor, consisting of two large vaults. Remnants of stairs leading to the tower's roof are still visible, and the southern part of the tower remains erect at a height of 15 meters, estimated to be the original height of the tower.

The tower is still in good structural condition overall, with the northern part intentionally damaged and no longer in use after fulfilling its initial function and abandonment. An Islamic cemetery currently surrounds the tower

The Shrine of Prophet Moses is located in the wilderness of Jerusalem, 8 kilometers south of Jericho, 28 kilometers east of Jerusalem, and 2 kilometers from the Jerusalem-Jericho road. It stands on sulfuric rocky hills resembling sand dunes, overlooking the Dead Sea and the city of Jericho. The structure includes a mosque, a shrine, and approximately 150 rooms of various sizes. The construction took place in several historical stages.

This shrine was established by the Mamluk Sultan Al-Zahir Baybars in the year 1269 AD. The foundation inscription on a marble slab outside the eastern wall of the shrine room and inside the mosque is written in calligraphic script. The inscription spans fifteen lines, stating, "In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. Mosques are established by those who believe in Allah and the Last Day. This honorable shrine was built on the tomb of the Prophet Moses, peace be upon him, by our lord, the king Al-Zahir..."

During the Mamluk period, the shrine consisted of the tomb chamber and the mosque. Additions were made to the mosque, alongside the construction of other service facilities such as living quarters, kitchens, ovens, wells, and stables. In the late Mamluk period, the mosque was expanded, and a minaret was built to the north of the mosque. The external wall of the shrine seems to date back to this period, as indicated by an inscription on the western door. The text, dated to 1737, reads: "In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. Allah spoke to Moses directly. He built the wells, doors, repaired the path, walls, oven, doors, and the roofs. He also renovated the land, the dome, full of goodness and blessings, by the grace of the Lord of the heavens and the earth, near the presence of Ali, Katkha in Egypt."

In the early Ottoman period, new wings were added to the building, and two new wells were dug to collect water. The shrine gained significant importance due to its location on the pilgrimage route. After a period of neglect, comprehensive restoration work was carried out on the shrine in 1885 by the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Mohammad Tahir Al-Husayni. This restoration included all the rooms on the first floor and their annexes, as well as reception halls on the north side of the building.

The shrine played a role in the political life during the British mandate. It was used as a camp for the Jordanian army and came under Israeli occupation until the mid-1980s when the Islamic Waqf regained control. Between 1914-1918, extensive restoration work was undertaken as part of a joint project involving the Ministry of Tourism, Antiquities, and Islamic Waqf, in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme and funding from the European Union.

The Khan (the Inn) is located in the center of Khan Yunis city on the ancient coastal road "Via Maris," connecting Egypt to the Levant, 32 km south of Gaza City. The city has grown around it over seven centuries. This Khan was built, as indicated by the foundation inscription at its entrance, by Yunis al-Nayrouzi al-Dawadar, the "scribe" of Sultan al-Zahir Barquq, until the year 1387 AD. The Khan served as a major station between Damascus and Baghdad, being one of the Khans that spread along the main roads during the Mamluk and Ottoman periods. It was possibly built in the 14th century on the ruins of the ancient site of Genessos mentioned by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE, and this hypothesis still requires archaeological exploration.

The Khan is a square-shaped building, with each side measuring 85.5 meters on two floors, constructed on an area of 16 dunums. It has two gates. There was a circular tower at each corner, facing one of the four directions. It had a large gate on the western wall and an open courtyard. It consisted of two floors: the first was used for storing goods or stables for animals, while the second floor, on the western side above the gate, housed a mosque, a minaret, a reception hall, and the remaining rooms were for sleeping. The castle had an internal and an external water well to supply the castle's residents with water. Above the main entrance to the castle, there are several engravings and reliefs carved in stone, surrounded by a lion drawing, and above the gate are arrow slits.

Parts of the castle collapsed due to the destruction that occurred in the battle between the Mamluks and the Ottomans in 1516, and also during the French campaign on Egypt and the Levant in 1798, and the destruction caused by the British to the castle during World War I in 1917. Other parts of the castle crumbled due to the passage of time, while the front part of the castle, including the main gate, the mosque, and the minaret, remained preserved. Some 19th-century travelers, such as the German Schumacher in 1866, described it as a small village. The Austrian Mousel and the German Tiersch left the first images of the castle in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1930s, Dr. Dimitri Baramki drew a plan of the castle. Dr. Robert Hamilton visited it in 1943, and Dr. Marwan Abu Khalaf conducted a study of the castle in 1983.

The area where this Khan is located was named Khan Yunis after it. The city grew in the last century to become the second-largest city in the Gaza Strip after Gaza City. Schumacher, who visited the city in 1866, noted that the population of the castle did not exceed 700 people, and in 1944, the population increased to 11,200 people. In 1967, the population doubled to about 23,465 people, and in 2023, it reached around 450,000 people. In 2004, the Palestinian Antiquities Department carried out restoration work on the western facade of the castle, and to the west of Khan Yunis city, there are several important archaeological sites, such as Tel Ridan and Tel Jinnan.

Traditional architecture is known as the living architecture that forms the architectural fabric of Palestinian villages and cities. It is characterized by specific architectural and structural features such as design, domes, arches, openings, decorations, and building materials that collectively shape the Palestinian architectural identity. The Palestinian house carries architectural traditions from the first human habitation in caves, progressing to the first houses made of mud bricks and later to houses constructed with stones in subsequent civilizations.

The core of the traditional Palestinian house generally consists of one room, with additional rooms added to form the "courtyard" or "dar" (house). These rooms open onto a common courtyard, and over time, additional houses and sometimes multiple floors can be constructed. These courtyards, known as "ahwash," serve as social units for extended families, and a group of courtyards often forms a neighborhood named after the family or a distinctive feature. The types of houses are generally associated with social and regional structures, with fixed stone houses found in cities and villages, while tents or temporary shelters are used in Bedouin areas. Caves and huts were also utilized for housing for the poor or for seasonal purposes such as agricultural huts. People utilized locally available natural materials for building their homes, constructing houses with stone in mountainous regions and using mud bricks and wood in coastal areas and valleys.

The Palestinian house is characterized by general architectural features, including the layout, spaces, building materials, the shape of internal and external openings, and the appearance of the roof.

The typical house plan was very simple, often a square or rectangular layout drawn on the ground by the master builder. Large houses and mansions required an experienced engineer. Generally, the door was placed in the center of the front wall. Palaces and residences of the wealthy and merchants represented different models in terms of planning, closer to urban architecture.

After preparing the main building materials such as stones, pebbles, bricks, and ash, the construction process begins. The builder, along with an industrial assistant and a worker called "dabish," fills the gaps between the courses (rows of stones), and other workers complete the construction. The first step is digging the foundation, followed by building thick walls layer by layer, approximately one meter wide, using traditional building materials composed of mud bricks and sand, until the construction is completed by roofing. All construction stages are associated with specific celebratory traditions, from the moment of digging the foundation to the house's roof completion.

The castle is located in the village of Shofa, it is also known as the Barqawi Castle, named after the family that built it. It is a large complex consisting of a courtyard and two floors, situated at the highest point in the village. Constructed from carefully hewn stones with thick walls, the Barqawi Castle comprises around 20 rooms. Additionally, there are courtyards and gardens within the castle, along with an old mosque that was originally part of the castle but was later separated for prayer purposes.

The castle is considered a grand structure in terms of its style, system, and architectural design. It was built by one of the village families that held significant influence during the late Ottoman period, specifically the Barqawi family, in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.

Like many hill villages in Palestine, the construction of this castle is closely tied to the political system that emerged in the late Ottoman period in the region, known for its quasi-feudal system. The administration of the surrounding area was entrusted to the sheikhs of the Barqawi family, including Sheikh Naser al-Barqawi and Sheikh Isa al-Barqawi. This family played a crucial role in the region's history, and their spheres of influence encompassed vast areas and numerous villages in the vicinity. Thus, their expansion provided substantial financial returns, sufficient to construct this castle, in addition to their broad political and social influence in the region.

Frequent disputes and conflicts occurred between these sheikhdoms, sometimes leading to uprisings against Ottoman central rule or facing campaigns by Ibrahim Pasha. This dynamic influenced the construction of the castle, giving it a formidable defensive appearance to protect against enemies.

The building consists of three floors: the ground floor, which includes rooms used for animals and various storage facilities, the central ground floor with an exposed courtyard surrounded by rooms and spacious intertwined stone archways. Access to the upper floor is through a ascending stone staircase. The ground floor rooms were used for hospitality, administrative tasks related to managing family properties, and for the guards and family workers. A garden was attached to the ground floor, along with a mosque comprising two rooms and a portico with two hemispherical stone domes. The upper floor contains rooms for the family's private use for living and sleeping. The castle's facade features a wide and tall main gate, constructed with great care using hewn stones adorned with beautiful geometric patterns. The number of rooms in the castle totals around twenty, varying in size and use. In 2005, the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities restored and rehabilitated the castle as a cultural and tourist landmark.

Fatimid gold dinar, with a prominent dot on the obverse within two central circles. The inner circle reads, "Imam al-Az b Allah Amir al-Mu'minin." The inscription on the outer border reads, "This dinar was minted in Palestine in the year six hundred and sixty-nine." On the reverse, a prominent dot is inside two central circles. The inner circle reads, "There is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, Ali is the chosen one of Allah." The inscription on the outer border reads, "Muhammad sent him with guidance and the true religion, to manifest it over all religion, even if the polytheists dislike it." Registration number: Special collection.

Glazed pottery lamp adorned with geometric patterns on a cream-colored surface. It was found during excavations conducted by the Palestinian Antiquities Department in the cemetery adjacent to the Church of St. Mary of the Orthodox, as part of the restoration work carried out in the church. These glazed vessels were used for kitchen purposes. The glazing process involved applying a glass layer to the pottery after the initial shaping and baking, resulting in hardness and shine.

A Mamluk silver dirham struck in Cairo during the reign of King Baybars in the period between 1309-1310 CE. The obverse bears the inscription "Baybars al-Salhi, the victorious king, the support of the world and the religion," with a lion image below it and the marginal inscription, "In the name of Allah." The reverse reads, "There is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, whom He sent with guidance. Struck in Cairo in the year... fifty and six hundred." The dirham was found in Bayt Ummar.

It has a pear-shaped form with a flat base. The surface is adorned with geometric patterns, consisting of straight lines, circles, and the jokandar (polo stick), representing the sport of polo, which was popular during the Mamluk period. This lamp is made using a mold, with clay poured into a two-part mold. After drying, the two pieces are attached and fired in a kiln.

A Dutch Lion Daalder made of silver, struck in 1575. The obverse features an image of a soldier wearing Dutch army attire, holding the edge of his military coat with his right hand and a shield with a lion image in his left hand. The reverse shows a lion standing on its hind legs in an attacking posture. The inscription on the margin reads, "Believers in God do not despair." This piece was found by the Palestinian Antiquities Department as part of a collection of silver coins in Qabatiya in 1998.

A Mamluk inscription on a limestone resembling Naskhi script consists of two lines, an upper line and a lower line, within a rectangular frame. It is believed to be a grave inscription.

After the British occupation of Palestine in 1918, the use of the Ottoman currency was discontinued. Egyptian currency was adopted for transactions until 1927 when the mandate government introduced new metal and paper currency. The metal currency included 1 mil, 2 mils, 5 mils, 10 mils, 20 mils, 50 mils, and 100 mils, while the paper currency came in denominations of half a pound (500 mils), one pound, ten pounds, fifty pounds, and one hundred pounds. These currencies were printed in the three official languages, Arabic, English, and Hebrew, and remained in circulation until the Nakba in 1948.

The process of grain milling began in the late Natufian (Neolithic) period around ten thousand years ago. With the intensified gathering of wild grains, grain milling became a necessity in the daily life of agricultural societies during the modern Stone Age when humans started practicing agriculture, producing grains, and using them in food. Throughout much of human history, the milling process was manually performed using simple grinding tools, typically carried out by women.

Initially, mortars and stone pestles appeared, representing the simplest forms of mills. These were essentially concave basalt stones where grains were crushed by a smaller hand-held stone moved back and forth. These stone mills continued into the Chalcolithic period and the Bronze and Iron Ages, appearing in significant quantities in archaeological contexts in Palestine and neighboring regions.

In the 5th century BCE, a new grain milling technology emerged, consisting of two stone pieces—one stationary and the other upper with an opening for grains to filter through. It was manually operated, resembling traditional millstones but proving more efficient in the milling process compared to the older method.

The most significant advancement in grain milling came with the invention of Roman mills, which consisted of a large conical stone rotating beneath a massive millstone. These mills were powered mechanically, often driven by animals such as donkeys. This innovation allowed for the mass production of flour and bread for the first time. The mechanical power for mill rotation was harnessed using human and animal power, water, and wind energy to turn the mills. These mills persisted until the 19th century when steam power was employed to operate them.

As for traditional millstones, also known as the "tahouna" or "jaarousha," these small mills were used for domestic consumption. They consisted of two circular basalt stones, with an opening in the center for placing the grains. The milling process involved rotating the upper stone manually with a wooden handle attached to its top. Almost every rural household in Palestine had such a mill, serving their domestic needs.

Recent aspects of the millstone industry have been observed in the village of Fakouaa in the Jenin region, where traditional millstones are still being crafted.

The city of Hebron has been renowned for glassmaking since ancient times. This industry emerged at the beginning of the Roman period and flourished during the Arab Islamic, medieval, and Ottoman periods. It was concentrated as a craft in the old town, with families playing a prominent role in its development. Sharia court records indicate the existence of seven glassmaking workshops in the mid-nineteenth century. Three of these workshops were located in Haret al-Qazazeen, and three others were in Haret al-Sawakeneh. Haret al-Qazazeen, named after the glass industry, was governed by craft regulations, led by a sheikh overseeing the industry and workers. The knowledge of glassmaking was passed down from ancestors to descendants within specific families.

The origins of glassmaking date back to the third millennium BCE in Egypt and Iraq. In Palestine, glassmaking using the casting method appeared in the mid-second millennium BCE. Production remained on a very limited scale until the colored glass industry developed in Phoenicia, continuing until the third century BCE. The true revolution in glassmaking occurred in the second half of the first century BCE with the discovery of glassblowing. This technique spread throughout the Roman Empire, and the industry developed in Palestine, showcasing diversity in shapes and colors.

Glass is primarily composed of three compounds: soda ash, lime, and sand. Hebron glass is made using the ancient glassblowing method, a tradition that spans more than a thousand years. Local materials such as feldspar, soda ash, and locally available wood for fuel are used. The dyes were traditionally sourced from Egypt. The glass factory consists of melting furnaces constructed from heat-resistant baked clay. The glass is melted to form an insulating layer, preventing materials from sticking during melting. Craftsmen and workers then throw the required glassmaking materials into the melting furnace, where the glass block is formed. This block is shaped using the blowing technique.

The glass factories in the city of Hebron produced pitchers, cups, lanterns, bracelets, rings, and pools. These products were exported to Jerusalem, Nablus, Cairo, and then to European markets through the port of Jaffa. Hebron participated in the World Exhibition held in Vienna in 1873, highlighting the importance of this industry. Glass craftsmen in Hebron established a glass factory outside the city, and the industry extended not only to Palestine but also reached Turkey. Despite the recent decline in the value of utilitarian glass, it continues to be used for decorative items and tourist products.

A "Taqiyya" is a small square piece of fabric crafted to fit the head. It is often adorned with silk embroidery and has hanging fringes on both sides. Taqiyyas were frequently embellished with silver and gold coins and served as the dowry for married women, worn on their heads. This type of headscarf was used by women in Palestine during the Ottoman and British Mandate periods, up until the mid-20th century. The shapes of these headscarves varied from one region to another, and they were known by different names, such as "wiqa," "Iraqiyya," "saffa," "shatwa," and "samada," depending on the area.

Embroidery is the art of decorating fabric using needles and thread, sometimes adorned with beads, shells, and coins. Embroidery has been associated with rural Palestinian areas and Bedouin regions in the Negev, often used to embellish the clothing of peasant and Bedouin women. This includes dresses, cloaks, pants, and head coverings such as qoqa, ʿiraqiyya, shattweh, burqa, and Bedouin veils. Embroidery typically adorned the chest area, including the neckline, shoulders, sides, and sleeves of the garment. Each region distinguished itself with a unique design style. It's noteworthy that the oldest archaeological evidence of colored women's clothing in Palestine was discovered in the tombs of Bani Hasan in Egypt, belonging to a Canaanite caravan on its way to Egypt in the second millennium BCE, featuring vibrant colors.

The cross-stitch, known as al-qubba al-fallaḥiyya, became the most widely used and associated with Palestine, especially in the late 19th century. Embroidery underwent changes in its patterns, themes, designs, and colors over time due to social and economic changes. Silk, gold, and silver threads were used in embroidery on locally handwoven fabrics, interspersed with cotton, linen, silk imported from Egypt, Syria, and England. Some cotton and wool fabrics were locally produced in Majdal, Gaza, Nazareth, Bethlehem, and Beit Jala. Fabrics and threads were often dyed using natural dyes extracted from plants and materials such as indigo, madder, and cochineal. Designs evolved in the 19th century from abstract geometric shapes to intricate forms like parallelograms, eight-pointed stars, squares, and intricate patterns inspired by local plants and animals such as cypress trees, palm trees, grapevines, and pomegranates.

Political and economic changes during the British Mandate influenced Palestinian embroidery, with the widespread import of high-quality European fabrics made of cotton, silk, and velvet, leading to a decline in local fabric production. Fine cotton threads, such as those produced by the French company DMC, entered the Palestinian market in the 1920s and quickly became more popular than Syrian silk threads. These cotton threads introduced new colors to Palestinian embroidery, and during this period, more complex forms, such as jars, human figures, and birds, became prevalent in cross-stitch.

Regional distinctions in embroidered clothing were evident in the type of embroidery, its themes, design coordination, thread colors, fabrics, and garment styles, showcasing the richness and diversity of this heritage. Bethlehem and Hebron were renowned for their use of "liberation embroidery," a technique allowing the creation of curved patterns using reed threads in the form of plants and other illustrative designs. Other embroidery techniques included tashreeem and tarqeeʿ, which involved adding fabrics to the original cloth, needle weaving, and qitaan, a weaving technique using silk, cotton, or other materials woven into fine cords.

Clothes available from the early 20th century provide evidence of the use of chain stitch, satin stitch, blanket stitch, fishbone stitch, and loop stitch, among other stitches. Some garments and cloaks from the Tira region in the Galilee were adorned with beautiful flower designs embroidered with red and blue threads on white cotton clothing. The precision and intricacy of embroidery were particularly evident in Bethlehem, Hebron, and Ramallah. Often, garments, head coverings, hats, and vests in these regions were covered with beautifully embroidered patterns rich in various stitches, with cross-stitch being the predominant one. Bethlehem was famous for its liberation embroidery, often using gold or silver threads to decorate garments and velvet jackets with rich floral or decorative designs.

After the Nakba in 1948, Palestinian women carried the tradition of embroidery to the diaspora, preserving it as part of the cultural identity of the Palestinian people. It became a symbol for the Palestinian people in both Palestine and the diaspora, featuring the colors of the Palestinian flag and the map of Palestine. In 2021, Palestinian embroidery was inscribed as "The Art of Palestinian Embroidery: Practices, Skills, Knowledge, and Rituals" on the UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage at the 19th conference in Paris.

Historical material extracted from an article by Diana Abu Ali titled "Palestinian Embroidery: National and Diverse Heritage." Interactive Encyclopedia of the Palestinian Issue, Palestinian Studies Foundation, Palestinian Museum. Accessed on December 20, 2023.